An Analysis of the Environmental Risks of Microplastic Pollutants and Their Role in Human Health

Articles in Press

Document Type : Review Article

Authors

Hossein Mohammadzadeh ^{1, 2}

Atefeh Razi ²

¹ Groundwater and Geothermal Research Center (GRC), Water and Environment Research Institute, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

² Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

10.22067/geoeh.2026.97629.1645

Abstract

Microplastics, as one of the emerging environmental pollutants, have raised increasing concerns about the health of ecosystems and humans. This study aimed to investigate the sources, distribution, characteristics, and environmental and health risks of microplastics with an emphasis on Iran. The present study was conducted as a systematic review based on the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. A search for articles was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar databases for the period 2015 to 2026. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria for articles, eligible studies were included in the final analysis. Data (including: study characteristics, environments studied, concentrations and characteristics of microplastics, sampling methods) were extracted and analyzed. The results show that microplastics are widely present in all aquatic, terrestrial, aerial and biological environments of Iran, and the dominant polymers are PE, PP, PS and PET, and are often in the form of fibers and pieces. The main sources of microplastics include urban and industrial wastewater, fishing, road traffic and poor waste management. The concentration of microplastics in the sediments of the Persian Gulf (up to 1346 particles.kg-1) and in the air of Tehran (up to 876 ng.m-³) is among the highest in the world. Microplastics can affect the health of living organisms by causing oxidative stress, inflammation and biological disorders, and pose serious risks to human health. Given the significant research gaps regarding the chronic effects of microplastics and the standardization of measurement methods - factors that have contributed to the ever-increasing spread of this emerging pollutant throughout the life cycle - it is crucial to formulate strategies for integrated monitoring, waste management, and the reduction of microplastic pollution in the country.
Introduction
Plastics have become an integral part of modern life due to their light weight, high durability, low cost, and malleability. Global plastic production has increased from 2 million tons in 1950 to 400 million tons in 2022 and is projected to exceed 33 billion tons by 2050. These characteristics have made plastics an environmental problem. Plastic particles are degraded by physical, chemical, and biological factors into smaller pieces less than 5 mm in size, which are called microplastics. Iran is one of the countries with poor waste management in the world, with an annual production of 4 million tons of plastic waste and a recycling rate of only 10–12%. According to the Plastic Overshoot Day (2024) report, the rate of plastic release into nature in Iran is about 78.4%, which is much higher than the global average (43%). This rate is more than 80% in the Persian Gulf and neighboring countries. Iran’s geographical location with access to the Persian Gulf, the Sea of ​​Oman, and the Caspian Sea has exposed the country to widespread microplastic pollution.
Material and Methods
The present study was conducted as a systematic review based on the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Articles were searched in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar databases for the period 2015 to 2026. The inclusion criteria included original studies, English and Persian articles, studies investigating the concentration and characteristics of microplastics in different environments in Iran, and studies related to human health. Unrelated articles, non-systematic reviews, and studies lacking quantitative data were excluded from the analysis. After initial screening and removal of duplicate and irrelevant articles, eligible studies were included in the final analysis. Data including study characteristics, study settings, microplastic concentrations and properties (polymer type, shape, size, and color), sampling methods, and main results were extracted and analyzed.
Results and Discussion
Microplastics are divided into two groups: primary (produced at microscale, such as industrial granules and cosmetic microbeads) and secondary (derived from the degradation of larger plastics). Polyethylene with 36% and polypropylene with 21% have the largest share of plastic demand. Common shapes of microplastics include fibers, fragments, spheres, and polygons.
According to data from scientific databases, microplastic research has started in the world since 2007 and in Iran since 2017. The number of Iranian articles increased from 100% in 2017–2020 to 250% in 2023–2024 and then continued with greater diversity. Studies conducted in Iran indicate the widespread presence of microplastics in all environmental matrices. For example, the concentration of microplastics in Tehran air (876 ng.m^-3) is the highest reported globally, mainly due to heavy traffic and vehicle tire wear. This finding is consistent with other studies in large cities such as London, Paris, and Shanghai (with concentrations of 0.3 to 1.5 particles) and demonstrates the important role of urban transportation in the emission of atmospheric microplastics. In sediments of the Persian Gulf and Anzali Wetland, the microplastics' concentrations are in the upper range of global reports (0–18,000 ppm), indicating significant input from untreated urban and industrial wastewater, fishing and tourism activities, and poor management of plastic waste. Despite 80% of the country’s dependence on groundwater, limited studies have been conducted on microplastic pollution in Iran aquifers. The concentrations of 0.1–1.3 ppm and 9–54 ppm have been reported for Shiraz and Kerman aquifers, respectively. In agricultural soils of Shiraz, concentrations of 0–93 particles/kg and in compost of Isfahan, very high concentrations of 34,267–44,267 particles/kg have been recorded, indicating the role of organic fertilizers and sewage sludge in the entry of microplastics into the soil and agricultural cycle. Numerous studies have confirmed the presence of microplastics in fish from the Persian Gulf, the Caspian Sea, rivers and wetlands. For example, 49.6% of fibers with the dominant polymer PE were observed in commercial species from the Persian Gulf. Hyrcanian forest amphibians showed 72% contamination, with fibers less than 0.5 mm in size and polyurethane and polystyrene polymers being the most abundant. Studies show that amphibians absorb about 9% more microplastics than fish, indicating a greater vulnerability of this group due to their permeable skin and dual life cycle.
Microplastics enter the body through ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact. In Iran, the presence of microplastics has been confirmed in human hair, skin, saliva, lung lavage fluid, sputum, pleural fluid, and placenta. Microplastics have also been found in food products such as salt (up to 5470 particles.kg^-1), sugar, mineral water, carbonated drinks, sausages, spices, hookah tobacco, and infant formula. Microplastics pose serious risks to human health by causing oxidative stress, inflammation, reduced intestinal mucosa, liver metabolic disorders, and changes in absorption and excretion.
Conclusion
Microplastics, as pervasive and emerging pollutants, have affected all aquatic, terrestrial, air, and biological environments. The concentrations reported in many regions of Iran, especially in the Persian Gulf, Anzali Wetland, and Tehran air, are at or above the global average. The entry of microplastics into the food chain and human body through food, drinking water, and breathing air has raised serious concerns for public health. Given the poor management of plastic waste in Iran (release rate of 78.4%), it is necessary to develop integrated monitoring strategies, waste management based on a circular economy, reduce the consumption of single-use plastics, efficiently treat municipal and industrial wastewaters, and conduct further research on the identified gaps (especially on groundwater nanoplastics, and chronic effects on human health). Also, developing national standards for sampling, identification, and measurement methods for microplastics in Iran will be a crucial step for comparability of results and making effective management decisions.

Keywords

Microplastics

Emerging Pollutants

Human Health

Environmental Risks

Environmental Monitoring

Subjects

• Biological hazards

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©2026 The author(s). This is an open access article distributed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)

 

 

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