the flood of December, 1964

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

• Seyed reza Hosseinzadeh ¹
• Mahnaz Jahaditoroghi ²

¹ Ferdowsi University of Mashhad

² Payame Noor University, fariman

10.22067/geo.v1i2.17012

Abstract

Introduction
Extreme Floods, hyperconcentrated and debris flows are common natural hazards in the basins which located in the northern slops of Alborz mountain range (Iranian north system). Flood occurrence in Golestan national park in 2001, 2002 and 2005( Hosseinzadeh and Jahadi Toroghi 2012), yearly flash floods in Masuleh catchment( Rezaei, 2009), large flood in Neka basin in 1999(Poorahmad 1999) and recent floods in Seh- Hezar basin are only a few examples. Flood hazard analysis over Iranian mountains is always considered scientific challenge because long discharge records are not available. On the other hand, flow gage stations may not correctly recored during large and extreme events because they are often washed out by large events or discharge exceeded the recordable level. Where the systematic data is not available we need to understand the spatial and temporal occurrence of the processes with an approach geomorphology. Dendrogeomorphology can provide an alternative for flood event date by analyzing the growth-ring series of trees affected by past extreme floods. Dendrogeomorphology represents one of the most precise and accurate methods for the dating of various geomorphic processes ( Alestalo, 1971; Shroder, 1980, Stoffel and bollschweilir, 2008, 2010 and 2012).
However the term - Dendrogeomorphology - was coined by Alestalo (1971), how ever the theoretical background for the study of flooding and sedimentation processes was provided by Sigafoos (1964) and Harrison and Reid(1967). Helley and LaMarche (1968) applied this techniques so as to determine the recurrence interval of flood events in Northern California. Later studies in the United States focused on floods in the White River (Arkansas; Bedinger, 1971) or high summer flows and floods in the Potomac River (Yanosky, 1982, 1983, 1984).Dendrogeomorphology was also used for dating of old large magnitude floods by Costa (1978). More over, George and Nielson (2000, 2003) have analyzed anatomical changes (“flood rings”) in Quercus macrocarpa to identify 19th century high-magnitude floods in the Red River of Canada. In Europe, only a few studies have focused on floods so far. For instance the one published by Astrade and Begin (1997) documenting recent spring floods in the Saone River of France (Stoffel 2008). Recently, scientists in Europe are focused on determination of flash flood discharge in ungauged mountain catchments (Ballesteros et al., 2011 and 2012, Ruiz et al., 2010). Some review papers in dendrogeomorphology have been published by Shroder(1980), Hupp(1988), Stoffel and Bollschweiler(2008,2009), Bollschweiler and Stoffel(2010), stoffel and willford(2012) after Alestalo book(1970). Study of floods using dendrogeomorphology has not been interested in Iran so far, therefore this paper introduces a new method for flood hazard researches.
Therefore, the aim of this paper is to date of past large flood events in order to improve frequency analysis and hazard estimation. We focus on the identification of large floods based on growth disturbances in heavily affected trees located in or next to the channel of the Seh-Hezar River in the Northern of Iran and present (i) a geomorphic map of the floodplain and its channels (1:7000)) (ii) an analysis of the relation between geomorphology and external tree disturbances; and (iii) a tree-ring-based dating of past large flood events.
Study Area
The study area includes a multichannel floodplain with 1Km length in the main channel of Seh- Hezar River located in the northern slops of Alborz Mountain. She-Hezar catchment drains an area of 462 Km2, originating from Takhte-Solayman glaciers and entering in to Caspian Sea (Fig. 1). The altitude in this catchment ranges from 389 to 4650 m which causes forms of many different geomorphic- ecologic zones including rainy forest areas in the low altitudes to Preglacial and Glacial environments at high altitudes. The annual average temperature varies from 0 to 13 °C; and the basin is characterized by abundant precipitation which falls as snow at high elevations in winter.
Extreme floods are common in the Seh-Hezar River catchment and are triggered by heavy storms and high stream gradient, which makes extremely high discharge and debris transport rates possible. Local organizations emphases that the occurrence of floods have been increased in the river by Glacial melting which is accelerated under global warming phenomena during the last decade. Some studies is been referred to acceleration of melting and ablation of Alam-Kuh and Takhte-Solayman glaciers by global warming(e.g, Yamani 2009) Hydrological data are available only for 10 years(2001-2011) from the “Servash-Poshteh” station located in the 5 Km upper part of the study area.
Material and Methods
The materials were used in this paper consists ASTER digital elevation model, ETM satellite image, maximum flood discharge records of Servash-Poshteh station and 20 tree samples as cross section and wedges.
The methods applied in this study can be divided into three main sections, namely: (i) field procedures; (ii) tree-ring data analyses; and (iii) flood reconstructions.
Floods and Hyperconcentrated flows may affect the morphology of a tree in different ways, leading to different growth responses in the tree-ring series (Stoffel and Bollschweiler, 2009). The most frequent disturbances and associated reactions in trees growing inside or adjacent to fl flood torrents in the study area is shown in Fig. 4. Floods may (i) tilt the stems of trees growing in the river, on gravel bars, or river banks through the unilateral pressure of the flow or through the impact of individual boulders (Braam et al., 1987; Fantucci and Sorriso-Valvo, 1999; Stoffel et al., 2005); (ii) expose roots as a result of river bank or gravel bar erosion (Lamarche, 1968; Carrara and Carroll, 1979; McAuliffe et al., 2006); (iii) remove the bark from the stem and injure the cambium from the impact or the abrasion of boulders and wood transported in the flow (Sachs, 1991; Larson, 1994; Bollschweiler et al., 2008); or (iv) shear off trees and cause the formation of candelabra growth following severe impact by boulders (Butler, 1987; Shroder and Butler, 1987).
The dendrogeomorphological study followed a geomorphological survey of the study based on the recognition and mapping of channel landform and deposits (Fig. 3)
The sampling strategy was based on external evidences of flood activity in trees. We selected a total of 15 Acer and Alnuse that were influenced by extreme floods and were located within the channel, on the gravel bars, or on the banks of the channels which marked by a, b, and c in the study site.
Samples were dried in the outdoor area in a summer dry whether (Mashhad city) and sanded with hard and soft sandpapers until got the clear surface to simple accounting of tree rings. Tree rings were counted by a dissecting microscope with an accuracy of 1/10 mm. Furthermore, samples were analyzed visually, and tree rings showing compression wood or callus tissue were noted in a dedicated file and flood events were dated using these wood changes.
Results and Discussion
In the present study, 15 Acer and Alnus trees affected by extreme floods have been analyzed with 20 wedge and cross sections to reconstruct extreme flood events at Seh- Hezar River (Alborz mountan System) covering the past 100 years. While the time covered by this reconstruction is much shorter compared to other paleoflood hydrology methods (e.g. Baker 2008, and Benito 2005), our study clearly shows the potential of extreme flood analyses based on information contained in growth-ring series of affected trees. Maximum annual discharges have been recorded from 2001 to 2011 systemically. The largest flood in this period with 6980 m3/s has been occurred in summer 2011.Based on flood mark elevations on tree stems; this event approximately is similar to as large paleofloods in discharge and flood levels. A series of floods were recorded in 2003, 2004, 2007, 2010 with discharge or 5225, 2100, 2400, 2400 and 1850 m3/s respectively. The results from dendrogeomorphology analysis summarized in the table 1. These data shows occurrence of 6 extreme floods in the 1936, 1942, 1976, 1983, 1992 and 1998. The 1983 flood was buried the sampled stem trees in 1.2 m depth but 9 years later(1992) another extreme flood was degraded the sediments and exposed the new tree roots. Consequently, the aggradation and degradation ages obtained by growth rings counting of the oldest spurting roots from stem and wood reactions after root exposure (Fig. 10-3). The above mentioned root sample is scratched by flood of 2003 and the age of the flood is recognized by counting the rings in the callus tissue. The scars of 1976 flood are seen at the same level of 2011 flood and based on growth rings in the callus. We determined the age of this flood with seasonally precision (summer 1976). Based on flood scar elevations on tree stems and channel characteristics, the paleoflood discharges is assessed.
Conclusion
This paper clearly illustrates the ability of dendrogeomorphology for flood analysis and documents how dating of past events can be improved in areas where the lack of historical documents, rainfall, and discharge data prevents the use of traditional methods. This method can be used in the many mountainous watersheds in Iran. Comparing with other historical methods in geomorphology, dendrogeomorphology covers a short period of time but gives precise annual, seasonall and even monthly time for past occurrence floods in the ungauged basins. In this paper, we obtained the age of 6 extreme floods in the Seh-Hezar River and found out the amount of flood discharges was ranged between 5000 to 10000 m3/s (Table. 2). In addition the frequency of extreme floods has been increased during the last decades with a concentrating in the summer season. It may causes by global warming which affected mountainous glaciers in the upstream of Seh-Hezar River. The results show more probable glacier melting in recent years (Fig. 13).

Keywords

• Surv. Prof. Paper 485
• A

---

References

Alestalo, J., 1971. Dendrochronological Interpretation of Geomorphic processes. Fennia 105, 1 –140.

Baker, V. R., 2008. Paleoflood hydrology: origin, Progress, prospects. Geomorphology 101, 1-13.

Ballesteros, J. A., Stoffel, M., Bodoque. J. M., Bollschweiler, M., Hitz, O. M., Diez-Herrero, A. 2010. Changes in wood anatomy in tree rings of Pinus pinaster Ait. following wounding by flash floods. Tree-Ring Research 66: 93–103.

Ballesteros, J. A., Eguibar, M., Bodoque, J. M., Diez, A., Stoffel, M., Gutierrez, I. 2012. (in press): Estimating flash flood discharge in an ungauged mountain catchment with 2D hydraulic models and dendrogeomorphic paleostage indicators. Hydrological Processes 25: 970-979

Baumann, F. and Kaiser, K. F.: The Multetta debris fan, eastern Swiss Alps: a 500-year debris flow chronology, Arct. Antarc. Alp. Res., 31(2), 128–134, 1999.

Benito, G., Thorndy Craft. V. R., 2005. paleoflood hydrology and Its role in applied hydrological sciences. Journal of Hydrology 313, 3-15

Bodoque, J. M., D´ıez-Herrero, A., Mart´ın-Duquea, J. F., Rubiales, J.M., Godfrey, A., Pedraza, J., Carrasco, R. M., and Sanz, M. A.: Sheet erosion rates determined by using dendrogeomorphological analysis of exposed tree roots: Two examples from Central

Spain., Catena, 64, 81–102, 2005.

Bodoque, J.M., A. Lucia, J.A. Ballesteros, J.F. Martin-Duque, Juan M. Rubiales, M. Genova, 2011. Measuring medium-term sheet erosion in gullies from trees: A case study using dendrogeomorphological analysis of exposed pine roots in central Iberia, Geomorphology 134, 417-425

Bodoque, J. M., Ballesteros, J. A.,2010. Dendrogeomorphic analysis of flash floods in a small ungauged mountain catchment (Central Spain). Geomorphology 118: 383–392.

Bollschweiler, M., 2007. Spatial and temporal occurrence of past debris flows in the Valais Alps – results from tree-ring analys is, Geo-Focus, 20, 182 pp.

Bollschweiler, M. and Stoffel, M.: Debris flows on forested cones – reconstruction and comparison of frequencies in two catchmentsin Val Ferret, Switzerland, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 7, 207–218, 2007,

Bollschweiler, M., Stoffel, M., 2010. Tree rings and debris flows: recent developments, future directions. Progress in Physical Geography 34: 625–645.

Bollschweiler, M., Stoffel, M., Ehmisch, M., and Monbaron, M.: Reconstructing spatio-temporal patterns of debris-flow activitywith dendrogeomorphological methods, Geomorphology, 87(4), 337–351, 2007.

Carrara, P. E. and Carroll, T. R.: The determination of erosion rates from exposed tree roots in the Piceance Basin, Colorado, EarthSurf. Process., 4, 307–317, 1979.

Costa, J. E.,1987. Colorado Big Thompson flood: geologic evidence of a rare hydrologic event. Geology 6, 617-620

Esmaili, R., Hosseinzadeh, M.M., Motavlli, S., 2011. Field Technique in Fluvial Geomorphology. Lahot, Tehran, 209pp

Gartner, H., Schweingruber, F. H., and Dikau, R.: Determination of erosion rates by analyzing structural changes in the growth

Pattern of exposed roots, Dendrochronologia, 19, 81–91, 2001.

Goudie, A., Anderson. M, Burt. T., Lwein, J., Richards, K., Whalley, B., Worsley, P., 1998 Geomorphological Techniques Routledge. 570 pp.

Harison, S.S., Reid, J.R., 1967. A flood-frequency graph based on tree-scar data. Proc. North Dakota Acad. Sci., 21, 23-33

Helley, E. J. and LaMarche, V. C.: December., 1964. a 400-year flood in Northern California. U.S., Geological Survey Professional Paper 600-D, D34–D37, 1968.

Hosseinzadeh, SR., Jahadi Toroughi, M., 2012. The study of paleoflood Hydrology using slack-water Deposits. Quantitive Geomorphology reaserches 1, 83-104

Hitz, O. M., G¨artner, H., Heinrich, I., and Monbaron, M.: First time application of Ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) roots to determine erosion rates in mountain torrents, Catena, 72, 248–258, 2008.

Hupp, C.R., 1988. Plant ecological aspects of flood geomorphology and paleoflood history, In: V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel, and P. Patton ( Editors), Flood Geomorphology, Wiley, New York, pp. 335-356

Hupp, C. R., 1984. Dendrogeomorphic evidence of debris flow frequency and magnitude at Mount Shasta, California, Env. Geol. Wat. Sci.6, 121–128.

Hupp, C. R., Osterkamp, W. R., and Thornton, J. L., 1987. Dendrogeomorphic evidence and dating of recent debris flows on Mount Shasta, northern California. U.S., Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 1396B, 1–39.

Jahadi Toroughi, M., Hosseinzadeh, SR., 2011. The Response of Fluvial Systems to Large Flood Events.Environmental Erosion Researches 4, 68-75.

LaMarche, V.C., 1968. Rates of slope degradation as determined from botanical evidence, White Mountains, California. US Geological

Survey Professional Paper 352-I.

LaMarche, V. C.: An 800-year history of stream erosion as indicated by botanical evidence, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 550D, 83–86, 1966.

LaMarche, V. C., 1961. Rate of slope erosion in the White Mountains, California, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 72, 1579–1580.

Malik, I., 2008. Dating of small gully formation and establishing erosion rates in old gullies under forest by means of anatomical changes in exposed tree roots (Southern Poland), Geomorphology 93, 421–436

Mayer, B., Stoffel, M., Bollschweiler, M., Hübl, J., Rudolf-Miklau, F., 2011. Possibilities and limitations of dendrogeomorphic time-series reconstructions on sites influenced by debris flows and frequent snow avalanche activity. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 43: 649–658.

Mayer, B., Markus Stoffel b,c, Michelle Bollschweiler, Johannes Hübl, Florian Rudolf-Miklau., 2010. Frequency and spread of debris floods on fans: A dendrogeomorphic case study from a dolomite catchment in the Austrian Alps, Geomorphology 118, 199–206

McAuliffe, J. R., Scuderi, L. A. and McFadden, L. D., 2006. Tree-ring record of hillslope erosion and valley floor dynamics:Landscape

responses to climate variation during the last 400yr in the Colorado Plateau, northeastern Arizona. Glob. Planet. Change, 50, 184–201.

Poorahmad, Ahmad., 1998. The role of Geography structure on the 1999 flood of Neka city. Mohit Shenasi 29. 59-70

Rezaei, P., 2009. Synoptic Analysis of Masoule Catchment Floods. Physical Geography Research Quarterly 68 , 105-118.

Ruiz-Villanueva, V., Diez-Herrero, A., Stoffel, M., Bollschweiler, M., Bodoque, J. M., Ballesteros., J. A., 2010. Dendrogeomorphic analysis of flash floods in a small ungauged mountain catchment (Central Spain), Geomorphology 118, 383–392

Scuderi, L., McFadden, L., and McAuliffe, J.: Dendrogeomorphically derived slope and stream response to decadal and centennial scale climate variability: Implications for downstream sedimentation, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci.,

Shroder, J. F., 1980. Dendrogeomorphology: review and new techniques of tree-ring dating, Prog. Phys. Geogr. 4, 161–188.

Sigafoos, R. H., 1964. Botanical evidence of floods and floodplain deposition, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 485-A.

Stewart, J. H., and Lamarch, V.C. Jr.,1967. Erosion and deposition produced by the flood of December, 1964 on Coffee Creek, Trinity County, California. United States Geological Survey, professional Paper 422-K, 1-22

St. George, S. and Nielsen, E.: Palaeoflood records for the Red River, Manitoba, Canada, derived from anatomical tree-ring signatures, Holocene, 13, 547–555, 2003.

St. George, S. and Nielsen, E.: Signatures of high-magnitude 19thcentury floods in Quercus macrocarpa tree rings along the Red River, Manitoba, Canada, Geology, 28, 899–902, 2000.

Stoffel, M. and Bollschweiler, M., 2007. Tree-ring based reconstruction of past debris-flow events and assessment of future risks in 32

torrents of the Valais Alps (Switzerland), Quat. Int., 167/8, 398– 399.

Stoffel, M. and Beniston, M., 2006. On the incidence of debris flows from the early Little Ice Age to a future greenhouse climate: a case study from the Swiss Alps, Geophys. Res. Lett, 33, L16404.

Stoffel, M., Conus, D., Grichting, M. A., Li`evre, I., and Maˆıtre, G., 2008. Unraveling the patterns of late Holocene debris-flow activity on a cone in the central Swiss Alps: chronology, environment and implications for the future, Glob. Planet. Change, 60, 222–234.

Stoffel, M., Li`evre, I., Conus, D., Grichting, M., Raetzo, H., G¨artner, H. W., and Monbaron, M2005.: 400 years of debris flow

activity and triggering weather conditions: Ritigraben, Valais, Switzerland, Arct. Antarc. Alp. Res., 37(3), 387–395.

Stoffel, M., Bollschweiler, M., Butler, D. R., Luckman, B. H., 2010. Tree rings and natural hazards: A state-of-the-art. Springer, Heidelberg, Berlin, New York, 505 pp

Stoffel, M., Bollschweiler, M., 2008. Tree-ring analysis in natural hazards research – an overview. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 8: 187–202.

Stoffel, M., Wilford, D.J., 2012. Hydrogeomorphic processes and vegetation: disturbance, process histories, dependencies and interactions. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 37: 9-22 . 12,13,14

Stoffel, M., Bollschweiler, M., Widmer, S., Sorg, A., 2010. Spatio-temporal variability in debris-flow activity: a tree-ring study at Geisstriftbach (Swiss Alps) extending back to AD 1736. Swiss Journal of Geosciences 103: 283–292

Stoffel, M., Bollschweiler, M., 2009. What tree rings can tell about earth-surface processes. Teaching the principles of dendrogeomorphology. Geography Compass 3: 1013–1037.

Stoffel , M., Casteller, A., Luckman, B.H., Villalba, R., 2012. Spatiotemporal analysis of channel wall erosion in ephemeral torrents using tree roots – An example from the Patagonian Andes. Geology. 40(3): 247–250.

Stoffel, M., Wilford, D.J., 2012. Hydrogeomorphic processes and vegetation: disturbance, process histories, dependencies and interactions. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 37: 9-22

Stokes, M. A. and Smiley, T. L.: An introduction to tree-ring dating, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 73 pp., 1968.

Strunk, H., 1997. Dating of Geomorphological processes using dendrogeomorphological methods, Catena 31, 137–151.

Strunk, H.: Dendrogeomorphology of debris flows, Dendrochronologia, 7, 15–25, 1989.

Yamani, M., 2009. The Measurement of Annual Movement of Alamkooh Glaciers . Physical Geography Research Quarterly 67, 31-52.

Yanosky, T. M., 1982. Effects of flooding upon woody vegetation along parts of the Potomac River flood plain, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 1206.

Yanosky, T. M., 1984. Documentation of high summer flows on the Potomac River from the wood anatomy of ash trees, Water Resour.

Bull., 20, 241–250.